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Federal Register / Vol. 86, No. 44 / Tuesday, March 9, 2021 / Rules and Regulations
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hellbender streams within the range of the Missouri DPS e.g., river otters Briggler et al. 2007, p. 17. Nonnative predators are also present within a large portion of the Missouri DPS of eastern hellbenders range and include predatory fish stocked for recreation, such as rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and brown trout Salmo trutta Mayasich et al. 2003, p. 20. Species experts presume nonnative trout species directly impact eastern hellbenders by predating on eggs, larvae, and subadults Briggler et al. 2007, p. 23.
Direct Mortality or Permanent Removal of Animals Large numbers of eastern hellbenders have historically been removed from some streams within the Missouri DPS
for scientific and educational purposes Peterson 1985, p. 59; Ingersol 1991, pp.
61, 63. Though there is no documentation of collection of eastern hellbenders within the Missouri DPS for the pet trade, we presume that individuals were also collected for this purpose based on documentation of the large number of Ozark hellbenders illegally collected for the pet trade Nickerson and Briggler 2007, entire and the proximity of the Missouri DPS
to Ozark hellbenders. These removals likely contributed to the population declines seen in some streams. The current rate of permanent removal of eastern hellbenders is likely significantly lower than it has been historically. However, collection and sale of eastern hellbenders continues to be a threat, with internet advertisements as recent as 2010 soliciting purchase of wholesale lots of eastern hellbenders Briggler 2010, pers. comm.. Killing of eastern hellbenders by some anglers and the removal of individuals for personal use and the pet trade also continues in some areas Briggler et al. 2007, pp. 18, 59. Even though many eastern hellbenders targeted by scientists and nature enthusiasts are returned to the stream, the act of searching for eastern hellbenders can result in increased egg and larval mortality. Eastern hellbenders are typically captured by lifting large shelter rocks and catching individuals by hand. Many researchers have speculated that rock lifting to collect eastern hellbenders results in adverse impacts to all life stages, especially when done during the breeding season Williams et al. 1981b, p. 26; Lindberg and Soule 1991, p. 8;
Williams 2012, pers. comm..
As a long-lived species, removing adult eastern hellbenders from stream populations may be particularly detrimental, as stable populations of long-lived species typically have high
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adult survival rates, which compensates for correspondingly low rates of recruitment into the adult populations Miller 1976, p. 2. In eastern hellbender populations with low densities and little evidence of recent recruitment into the adult population, the removal of any individuals from a population may be deleterious Pfingsten 1988, p. 16.
Because many populations within the Missouri DPS of eastern hellbender are already stressed by habitat degradation, compensation for high adult mortality through high recruitment of juveniles is even less likely. Although the magnitude of the threat of removing individuals from the wild is not known with certainty, its occurrence is commonly noted by field researchers, suggesting that it is a relatively common occurrence in some portions of the subspecies range. Furthermore, as the number of populations decline and become concentrated on public lands, locations and animals might be easier to find discussed below in the Conservation Efforts section and the SSA report; Service 2018, p. 56.
Synergistic Effects In some instances, effects from one threat may increase effects of another threat, resulting in what is referred to as synergistic effects. Synergistic effects often include an increased susceptibility to predation Moore and Townsend 1998, pp. 332333, disease Kiesecker and Blaustein 1995, pp. 1105011051;
Taylor et al. 1999, pp. 539540, or parasites Kiesecker 2002, pp. 9902
9903; Gendron et al. 2003, pp. 472473.
In addition, chronic, increased levels of stress hormones have been shown to inhibit immune response Rollins-Smith and Blair 1993, pp. 156159; Romero and Butler 2007, pp. 9394. Other stressors present in the eastern hellbenders environment e.g., habitat modification, degraded water quality could reduce immune response and thereby increase vulnerability to disease and parasites.
Conservation Efforts Beneficial efforts, primarily of population augmentation, were also ranked by species experts as an important influence on the Missouri DPSs status. Captive-rearing increases the survival rate of young by raising them in captivity to 2 to 4 years of age Briggler 2019, pers. comm.. Once reared, young are released into the wild to augment existing populations or reintroduced into areas where the species has been extirpated. However, we currently have no data on whether released individuals have successfully reproduced or can successfully
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reproduce, or the survival rates of any resulting offspring.
In addition, artificial nest boxes have been successfully used for reproduction by hellbenders in Missouri Briggler 2016, p. 1. However, the survival of fertilized eggs and larvae from these nest boxes is unknown. Because nest boxes may present a curiosity to stream recreationists, hellbenders occupying the nests are susceptible to disturbance, persecution, and collection if the nest boxes are not properly camouflaged.
Lastly, the eastern hellbender including the Missouri DPS is listed on Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CITES. CITES is an international agreement among governments with the purpose of ensuring that international trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Appendix III
includes native species that at least one Party country i.e., a country that is part of CITES has identified as requiring regulation to prevent or restrict exploitation. Under Appendix III, that Party country requests the help of other Parties to monitor and control the trade of that species.
Summary In summary, stressors are pervasive across the range of the Missouri DPS of the eastern hellbender. The primary stressors affecting the Missouri DPS of eastern hellbender include sedimentation, water quality degradation, disease, habitat disturbance, small population size, and direct mortality. Although augmentation has the potential to influence the status of the DPS, little data exist as to whether successful sustained reproduction and recruitment can be achieved and whether augmentation is logistically possible throughout the range. With regard to redundancy, there is high vulnerability for DPS-wide extirpation due to the low number four and reduced distribution of populations.
Populations of the Missouri DPS
eastern hellbender have declined as much as 77 percent over a twenty-year period in the Big Piney River, Gasconade River and Niangua River Wheeler et al. 2003, p. 155. The threats described above have already resulted in the functional extirpation of one of five populations of the eastern hellbender in Missouri and the declining condition of the remaining four populations. Of the four remaining populations, none are currently healthy, contributing to their low resiliency. The lack of healthy populations, the limited spatial extent of the Missouri DPS and the likely functional loss of
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